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雾都劫难——记1952年的伦敦大雾灾

原文作者:佚名

  今年年初,雾霾席卷我国中东部大部分地区,持续数周不散,致使天空阴霾,人们的生产、生活和身体健康都受到了影响。雾霾的危害传得沸沸扬扬,要求治理空气污染的呼声也越来越高。或许有的人仍不以为意,以为情况并不严重。但别忘了,就在1952年的冬天,一场遮天蔽日的特大雾霾席卷伦敦,仅仅持续了四天就让四千余人丢了性命,接下来的数月里,又有八千余人死于大雾引发的疾病。直到1956年,英国政府出台了《空气清洁法案》,这才让伦敦逐渐远离危难。空气污染的危害才显露冰山一角就已如此恐怖,我们若不吸取前车之鉴,恐怕后果会更为严重。[论文网]
   "hell," wrote shelley1), "is a city much like london—a populous and a smoky city." never was that more true than over one terrible weekend 61 years ago. on friday, december 5 1952, a silent, suffocating2) smog settled over the capital's streets. by the time it lifted, four days later, more than 4000 people had lost their lives in what is still officially the world's worst air pollution disaster.
   that weekend was bitterly cold and londoners stoked up3) their coal fires to keep warm, pushing pollution up a million chimneys to join the already foggy, stagnant4) air. this hung like a pall5) over the city because it was trapped in a temperature inversion6), with the cold caught beneath a warmer layer higher up. on the friday the pea-souper7) was already thicker than anyone could remember, and it went on getting worse. visibility quickly dropped to five yards all over london, and on sunday night it was officially described as "nil8)". on the monday, sadler's wells had to abandon a performance of la traviata because the audience could not see the stage, and nurses at the royal london hospital reported not being able to see from one end of their wards9) to the other. people who had set off in their cars had to abandon their cars and walk, while buses gave up and crawled back to their depots10) in nose-to-tail convoys11). two trains collided near london bridge. and sacking12) soaked in whisky was wrapped around the nostrils of cattle at the smithfield show13) to act as improvised gas masks.
   the times, in a whimsical14) if wrong-headed15) leader column, settled for16) smog scepticism, arguing that the phenomenon was both natural and well precedented17). "the fogs are ancient britons18)," it opined19). "taking advantage of a northern island, rich in rivers and diversity of soils, they roam about on their little cat feet as freely as they did before anyone had heard of smoke abatement20)." yet levels of smoke in the air appear to have peaked at 66 times "normal" levels. the results only became apparent when undertakers21) reported that they were running out of coffins and florists had sold all their flowers.
   in one sense the times was right: the great smog had been brewing22) for a long time. the first documentary record of british air pollution has henry iii's queen eleanor being forced to cut short a visit to nottingham in 1257 because of fumes23) from burning coal. her son, edward i, was the first to act against it, setting up a commission in 1285, under instructions to come up with a solution. and so it did—31 years later—banning the use of the fuel on pa

in of24) "grievous ransoms25)".

  that did not have much effect, but—as prof peter brimblecombe in his classic book the big smoke, records—the black death26) did: it killed perhaps a quarter of britons, causing land to go uncultivated27) and trees to grow back where home counties forest had once been cut down. wood became a cheaper fuel than coal.
   yet two centuries later, as he explains, wood was scarce again and coal returned. elizabeth i complained she was "greatly grieved and annoyed with the taste and smoke" of it, while james i was "moved to compassion" by the way the pollution was eating away28) at st paul's cathedral, and oversaw a law banning burning the fuel within a mile of his court.
   things only got worse. the first great smog may indeed have occurred: in november 1679 deaths rose sharply during two recorded "great stinking29) fogs". after many failed parliamentary attempts, palmerston, as home secretary, finally got some weak legislation through, but the fogs still swirl30) evilly through the works of dickens and conan doyle. in one real great smog 19 people were drowned after walking unwittingly31) into the thames, its docks and the regent's canal. and in 1892, after a succession of fogs, the author robert barr produced a novel predicting that one would wipe out32) almost the whole population of london in the mid-20th century.
   “地狱,”雪莱写道,“就是一座像极了伦敦的城——人口稠密,烟雾弥漫。www.11665.CoM”在61年前那个恐怖的周末,这句话就是不争的事实。1952年12月5日星期五,一场令人窒息的雾霾悄然降临在这个一国之都的大街小巷。等到四天之后雾霾散去时,四千余条生命亦随之逝去。这场灾难至今仍然被官方认定为世界上最严重的空气污染灾难。
   那个周末寒气凛冽,伦敦市民家家户户烧旺煤火取暖,废气从百万条烟囱排出,进入原本就已阴霾沉滞的空气中。冷空气积聚在高空较暖的空气之下,形成一道逆温层,这些被污染的空气就被困在逆温层下面,活像一块墓布罩在伦敦上空。周五那天,黄色的雾霾就已浓重得超出了人们记忆中的任何一场大雾,而且情况还在不断恶化。整个伦敦的能见度很快降至五码(译注:约4.6米),到周日晚上,官方公布说能见度已降为“零”。周一,沙德勒之井剧院被迫取消了一场《茶花女》的演出,因为观众根本看不到舞台;据报道,伦敦皇家医院的护士们甚至无法从病房的这一头看见另一头。已经开车出门的人们不得不弃车步行,公交车也全部停运,一辆挨着一辆排成长龙艰难缓慢地驶回停车场。在伦敦桥附近,两列火车发生碰撞。在伦敦皇家史密斯菲尔德农业机械与技术展上,人们把用威士忌浸湿的粗麻布裹在牛的鼻孔上充当临时的防毒面具。
   《泰晤士报》发表了一篇异想天开并且可能根本就有错的社论专栏,勉强接受了雾霾怀疑论,还争辩说此乃自然现象,且不乏历史先例。“这些大雾可谓古老的英国人,”该报认为,“它们踏上北方一个河流众多、土壤肥沃的岛屿(编注:指英国的大不列颠岛),借着地利一路迈着如猫一般悄无声息的小碎步肆意游荡,早在人们听说‘烟雾消除’这个概念之前,它们便已是这样。”然而,这次雾霾的浓度似乎达到了最高,是“正常”浓度的66倍。它造成的种种后果直到殡仪馆宣布棺材用尽、花店鲜花售罄时才显露出来。
   但《泰晤士报》有一点没说错:这场雾霾已经酝酿了很久。英国关于空气污染的最早文献记录可追溯至1257年,当时亨利三世的王后埃莉诺前去诺丁汉访问,却因煤炭燃烧产生的烟雾太大而不得不缩短行程。埃莉诺之子爱德华一世是最早针对空气污染采取行动的君主,他在1285年成立了一个委员会,命令该委员会拿出解决方案。该委员会也确实给出了对策(不过是在31年之后),那就是禁止烧煤,违者被处以“巨额罚款”。
   这招并不怎么奏效,倒是黑死病帮了大忙。彼得·布林布尔库姆教授在其经典著作《大烟雾》中写道:约四分之一的英国人因黑死病丧命,结果造成土地抛荒,伦敦周围各郡曾遭砍伐的森林地带又重新长出了树木,木头成了比煤炭还要便宜的燃料。
   不过,布林布尔库姆教授解释说,两个世纪后,木材又变得稀缺,煤炭卷土重来。伊丽莎白一世曾抱怨说她被煤炭燃烧所产生的“气味和烟雾弄得痛苦不堪,大为恼火”;而詹姆斯一世曾因雾霾对圣保罗大教堂的腐蚀而“心生慈悲”,督导实施了一条法律,禁止在王宫方圆一英里内燃烧煤炭。

 可情况只是变得越来越糟。第一场重度雾霾可能确实发生过:1679年11月,在两场有记载的“恶臭大雾”发生期间,死亡人数急剧增加。议会多次试图解决雾霾问题,但均告失败,最终还是在内政大臣帕默斯顿的努力下,才终于出台了几条效力薄弱的相关法律条文。尽管如此,雾霾依旧在狄更斯和柯南·道尔的作品中逞凶作恶。在一场特大雾霾中,19人不知不觉就走进了泰晤士河及其码头以及摄政运河,溺水身亡。1892年,接连几日大雾后,作家罗伯特·巴尔创作了一部小说,预言在20世纪中期将会发生一场大雾,届时整个伦敦几乎无人能幸免于难。
   知识拓展
  什么是雾霾?
  雾霾,顾名思义就是雾和霾。二氧化硫、氮氧化物和可吸入颗粒物这三项是雾霾的主要成分,前两者为气态

污染物,而颗粒物则是重金属、多环芳烃等有毒物质的载体。颗粒物是加重雾霾天气污染的罪魁祸首,它们与雾气结合在一起,使大气变得浑浊,能见度下降。城市有毒颗粒物的来源主要是汽车尾气,其次是北方冬季烧煤供暖所产生的废气,还有工业生产排放的废气以及建筑工地和道路交通产生的扬尘。雾霾进入呼吸道后会对人体造成伤害,容易引发呼吸道疾病,损伤心肺。因此,雾霾天气出门时最好戴上口罩。
   伦敦的大雾
  ——英国小说中的常客
  在许多著名的英国小说中,伦敦的大雾经常是重要的场景之一,著名英国作家如狄更斯(1812~1870)和柯南·道尔(1859~1930)的作品尤为如此。狄更斯的很多小说中都有伦敦大雾的身影,他在小说《荒凉山庄》(bleak house)中描写“超级雾霾”时代的伦敦时写道:“fog everywhere. fog up the river, where it flows among green aits and meadows; fog down the river, where it rolls defiled among the tiers of shipping, and the waterside pollutions of a great (and dirty) city ... (到处都是雾。雾笼罩着河的上游,在绿色的小岛和草地之间飘荡;雾笼罩着河的下游,在鳞次栉比的船只之间、在这个大[而脏的]都市河边的污秽之间滚动,滚得它自己都变脏了。) ”柯南·道尔则常常把福尔摩斯探案故事的背景设在伦敦的大雾中,为他的侦探故事更添神秘色彩。
   拯救伦敦的《空气清洁法案》
  1956年出台的《空气清洁法案》是英国政府在1952年的伦敦大雾灾后制订的一项法案,于1964年正式生效。法案规定了种种减少空气污染的措施,包括把一些地区定为无烟区(即只能使用无烟燃料的地区),用清洁煤、电力和天然气代替家用燃料,加高烟囱,将发电厂搬离城市等。
   1. shelley: 指英国著名浪漫主义诗人珀西·比希·雪莱(percy bysshe shelley,1792~1822)。其代表作有《致云雀》(to a skylark)、《西风颂》(ode to the west wind)、《解放了的普罗米修斯》(prometheus unbound)等。
   2. suffocate [?s?f?ke?t] v. (使)窒息,(使)呼吸困难
  3. stoke up: 添加燃料拨旺(炉火)
  4. stagnant [?st?ɡn?nt] adj. 不流动的,呆滞的
  5. pall [p??l] n. 棺罩;墓布
  6. temperature inversion: 【气】逆温,温度逆增
  7. pea-souper [?pi??su?p?(r)] n. 黄色的浓雾,因其颜色像豌豆汤而得名,是伦敦人对这种浓雾的别称。
  8. nil [n?l] n. 无,零
  9. ward [w??d] n. 病房
  10. depot [?dep??] n. (停放公共汽车或火车头等交通工具的)车库
  11. convoy [?k?nv??] n. 同行车队
  12. sacking [?s?k??] n. 麻袋布,粗麻布
  13. smithfield show: 伦敦皇家史密斯菲尔德农业机械与技术展,是由伦敦皇家史密斯菲尔德俱乐部举办的展览会。该俱乐部旨在通过各方面的竞争和技术展示会等方式来促进或提高牛、羊、猪等家畜的繁殖和养育。
   14. whimsical [?w?mz?kl] adj. 异想天开的;离奇古怪的
  15. wrong-headed [r???hed?d] adj. 判断错误的
  16. settle for: 将就,只好如此
  17. precedented [?pres?dent?d] adj. 有先例(可援)的
  18. briton [?br?tn] n. 英国人
  19. opine [???pa?n] vt. 表达意见;认为
  20. smoke abatement: (城市的)烟雾消除。1785年蒸汽机的发明者james watt为其发明的首个“烟雾消除”装置申请了专利。
  21. undertaker [??nd?te?k?(r)] n. 殡仪员
  22. brew [bru?] vi. 酝酿
  23. fume [fju?m] n. [常作~s] (有害、浓烈或难闻的)烟,气
  24. on pain of: 违则以……处罚
  25. ransom [?r?ns?m] n. 赎金
  26. black death: 黑死病,可能是由该病患者会因皮下出血导致皮肤变黑而得名,是人类历史上最严重的瘟疫之一,约在1340年散布到整个欧洲。这场瘟疫在全世界造成了大约7500万人死亡。关于引发黑死病的病原体并无定论,人们认为这种病原体现在可能已经灭绝。
   27. uncultivated [?n?k?lt?ve?t?d] adj. 未开垦的
  28. eat away: 侵蚀
  29. stinking [?st??k??] adj. 臭的,发恶臭的
  30. swirl [sw??l] vi. 盘绕
  31. unwittingly [?n?w?t??li] adv. 不知不觉地;没有意识到地
  32. wipe out: <口>弄死,干掉
  33. harold macmillan: 哈罗德·麦克米伦(1894~1986),英国前首相(1957~1963年在位),绰号supermac。
  34. half the battle: 成功的重要条件
  35. descent [d??sent] n. 下降;降落
  36.induce [?n?dju?s] vt. 引起;导致
  37. backbencher
  [?b?k?bent??(r)] n. (尤指英国下议院的)后座议员,普通议员
  38. put down: 写下,记下
  39. private member's bill: 普通议员议案,指立法机关中不代表执政党发言的普通议员提出的议案。后座议员杰拉尔德·纳巴罗针对英国的污染和大雾提出了一项普通议员议案,该议案后来演变为1956年颁布的《空气清洁法案》。
   40. nitrogen dioxide:【化】 二氧化氮
  41. particulate [pɑ??t?kj?l?t] n. 微粒,颗粒
  42. supine [?su?pa?n] a

dj. 消极的;倦怠的
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