【abstract】learning strategy instruction in l2 acquisition is really at issue. it is a very complex task . the goal of strategy instruction is to help learners to learn how to employ strategies flexibly and how to select appropriate strategies to perform a particular learning task. metacognitive strategies may be thought of as core learning strategies because they are applicable to a variety of learning tasks and also because they are overarching strategies above cognitive strategies and social/affective strategies. this paper explores the issues of strategy training in l2, and stresses the importance of metacognitive strategies in strategy instruction.
【key words】learning strategies；strategy instruction；metacognitive strategy; metacognitive skills.
when it comes to training learners in the use of learning strategies in l2 acquisition, maybe it is most appropriate to say “there is a lot to play for” (skehan 1991 as cited in ellis, 1994, p.558). up to now, there are a large number of material on training learners to use effective language learning strategies (e.g., ellis and sinclair 1989; brown 1989; oxford 1990; wenden 1986b and 1991). however, there have been few empirical studies evaluating the the success of the training on l2 learners (ellis,1994). it has not proved an easy task to incorporate the accumulation of knowledge about strategies in effective learning into the teaching process (williams&burden, 2000 ). because of the lack of solid evidence, there appeared two opposite viewpoints on the issue of strategy instruction.
1.argument on strategy instruction
it is argued that since not enough is yet known about the relations between learning strategies and language learning, caution should be exercised in attempting to train learners to use particular strategi
es. rees-miller (1993; 1994) argues that in view of the lack of evidence for the effectiveness, resources spent on strategy training might be better directed elsewhere. benson (2005) argue that the correlation between strategy use and improved performance is not necessarily a causal-effect relationship.
the research literature contains a wealth of descriptions of attempts to teach language learning strategies. these researchers mainly include o’malley and chamot (1990), wenden and rubin (1987), and oxford and crookall (1989). it is worth noting that the results of most of their studies indicate that those who were explicitly taught strategies perform better on a range of language tasks than did the control groups who received no strategy training (williams&burden, 2000). mcdonough’s (1999) review of research suggests that the hypothesis that learners can learn how to use effective strategies remains valid. obviously, the explicit teaching of strategies has received a considerable amount of attention. most of researchers are in favor in strategy training. in china, the summer institute on l2 learning strategy training and research was held in nanjing university in 2003 (wang, l. f &wen q. f., 2003).
2 issues of strategy training in l2
ellis (1994) identified 5 key issues in language learning strategies training after reviewing the major studies on strategy training. he gave a warning that issues should be paid much attention to before strategy training is implemented:
⑴more work is needed to discover what strategies and, in particular, what combinations of strategies should be taught.
⑵ways have to be found of taking into account learners’ own preferred learning strategies.
⑶some learners may need convincing that strategy training is worthwhile.
⑷it is not clear whether learner training will work best when it exists as a separate strand in a language program or when it is fully integrated into the language teaching materials.
⑸whether learners should be made conscious of the strategies they are taught, or whether just
providing practice opportunities is sufficient.
why is the issue of strategy training so complex? it may be due to the different factors that interact to influence the teaching and learning of strategies: age, gender, personal learning style and teachers’ attitude and beliefs. for example, the learning strategies employed by the child learners and adult learners are different. the studies made by researchers (e.g., o’malley et al 1985; chamot et al 1987) suggest that learners’ ability to use a broad range of strategies flexibly may depend to a large extent on the nature of and range of the instructional tasks in the classroom. however, it may not be possible to predict the kinds of strategies that a learner will employ in a particular task. on the one hand, strategy instruction is dependent on the tasks; on the other hand, the tasks is unlikely to specify certain strategies to be used by the learners. maybe it is better to cite ellis’ words (1994): specific tasks may predispose learners to use particular strategies, but they cannot predetermine the actual strategies to be used. (p.545)
3.role of metacognition in l2 training
the goal of strategy instruction is to help learners to learn how to employ strategies flexibly and how to select appropriate strategies to perform a particular learning task. but here is the problem for the teachers and the learners: how to define the word “appropriate”?
among three types of strategies in the classification of o’malley and chamot , metacognitive strategies may be thought of as core learning strategies because they are applicable to a variety of learning tasks and also because they are overarching strategies above cognitive strategies and social/affective strategies. metacognive strategies are higher order executive skills entailing goal identification, planning, monitoring and evaluation. according to anderson (2002), understanding and controlling cognitive processes may be one of the most essential skills in the classroom.
the distinctions between cognitive and metacognitive strategies are important, partly because they give some indication of which strategies are the most crucial in determining the effectiveness of learning. it seems that metacognitive strategies, which allow students to plan, control, and evaluate their learning, have the most central role to play in this respect, rather than those that merely maximize interaction and input. thus the ability to choose and evaluate one’s strategies is of central importance.
there are also other researchers who emphasize metacogition in learning strategies. williams and burden (2000) stress metacognition is central to effective learning. wenden (1987) says that metacognition is “the process that underlies the efficient use of strategies and the essence of intelligent activity” (p. 573). quicke (1994) similarly views that metacognitive awareness is crucial in learning strategies. ellis (1994) is relatively reserved, saying that metacognitive strategies assume considerable importance at least for adults. he continues to say that many learners seem to underutilize this strategy . this finding supplies meaningful implications for strategy training.
in addition, most of the studies (o’malley snd chamot 1990; wenden and rubin 1987; oxford and crookall 1989) found the learners who were particularly taught metacognitive strategies performed better than those in the control group. good language learners make use of metacognitive knowledge to help them assess the needs, evaluate progress and give directions to their learning.
4.teaching metacognitive skills
since the importance of metacognition has been stressed, it is advisable to heighten learners’ metacognitive awareness. wen (1995) emphasized that successful learners are thoughful and aware of themselves in relation to the learning process . they are able to employ strategies unconciously, and make their metacogitive awareness into play when necessary or when they are faced with difficulties. such awareness gives learners control over their own learning. therefore, metacoginitive awareness is a necessary and essential focus in learning to regulate learning.
training in metacognitive awareness include awareness of what learning a language invloves as well as training in the selection of appropriate strategies for different situations. in addition, metacognitive training should include heightening awareness of the feelings in defferent aspects of language learning, and of a learner’s personalities and strengths. (williams & burden，2000)
to raise metacognitive awareness involves five aspects.
⑴preparing and planning for learning: these important metacognitive skills relates to identifying what is to be accomplished. teachers articulate the particular learning goals for class and guide the studens in setting their own learning goals.
⑵knowing how to select and use learning strategies: in this respect, teachers teach students how to use specific strategies based on various tasks. teachers show how to choose the strategy that is most likely to succeed in a given situation. it is the most difficult skill for teachers to instruct students.
⑶monitoring strategy use: by monitoring, students can keep themselves on track to meet their aims. during the time students implement specific strategies, teachers need to remind students to stop regularly and think about whether they use strategies as intended.
⑷knowing how to deploy various strategies: teachers can aid students by making them aware of various strategies available. to master this skill means that a student has the ability to coordinate, organize and make association among the various strategies.
⑸self-assessing one’s own strategy use: self-assessment helps students reflect through the cycle of learning. teachers may ask such questions as “ what am i trying to accomplish?” “how well am i using them?” . through this skill, students can learn to assess their performance more accurately.
the five aspects are valuable suggestions for teachers to instruct the metacognitive strategies. to have good metacognitive awareness can greatly facilitate the improvement of strategy use and empower second language learners.
5.conclusion
it must be re-emphasized in conclusion that the issue of strategy training in l2 acquisition is far from simple, and there are no simple solutions to the questions of how to promote efficient employment of strategies. the aim of strategy training in l2 learning lies not in the mastery of strategies but in heightening strategy awareness, in enlarging the range of strategies to be selected, and in enhancing the ability to self-monitor and self-regulate in the learning process. most of important, metacognitive strategies—the core learning strategies, should be paid much more attention to in language instruction.
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